Multilayered interactions between lepidoptera and fungi: spore dispersal, mycophagy, and entomopathogenic relationships

Abstract

The order Lepidoptera is an insect group that draws ecological attention not only with plants but also with fungi. In this review, the relationships of Lepidoptera species with fungi in forest ecosystems are discussed in a multifaceted manner within the framework of spore transfer (entomochory), entomopathogenic pressures, symbiotic associations and mycophagic feeding behaviors. In particular, the passive dispersal of fungal spores on the body surfaces of some butterfly and moth species plays an important role in the spread of fungi between habitats. However, entomopathogenic fungi such as Cordyceps, Beauveria and Metarhizium are among the biotic factors that suppress Lepidoptera populations and have potential in terms of biological control applications. In species that exhibit mycophagic behavior, it has been shown that fungi function both as a nutritional source and a microhabitat; this behavior is shaped by physiological, ecological and evolutionary adaptations. The limited amount of existing literature emphasizes the need for experimental, molecular and biogeographical-based studies to understand these interactions in more depth. This study examines Lepidoptera-fungi relationships with a multi-layered approach, revealing knowledge gaps in this field and providing a roadmap for future research.