The role of agriculture-forestry-fisheries sectors, biodiversity expenditures, and renewable energy on environmental quality for The Netherlands: Evidence from novel Fourier ARDL

Abstract

This study examines the relationship between biodiversity expenditures, agriculture-forestry-fisheries sectors, renewable energy, economic growth, ecological footprint, and load capacity factor for The Netherlands from 1995 to 2019 in the context of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) and load capacity curve (LCC) hypotheses. The relationship between the variables is investigated using a novel Fourier-based Augmented ARDL approach. Our results indicate a long-term relationship between biodiversity expenditures, agriculture-forestry-fisheries sectors, green energy, economic growth, and load capacity factor. In the long run, Fourier-based Augmented ARDL results reveal that biodiversity expenditures, agriculture-forestry-fisheries sectors, and renewable energy do not contribute to environmental sustainability. In other words, biodiversity, renewable energy, and agriculture-forestry-fisheries policies implemented in The Netherlands do not improve environmental sustainability. Again, the findings confirm that the EKC hypothesis is not valid for The Netherlands, whereas the LCC hypothesis is valid. In line with the study's findings, biodiversity, renewable energy, and agriculture-forestry-fisheries policies in The Netherlands need to be reviewed.